A Theoretical Model Based on Generation Time Reduction and the Influence of Mitosis Duration in the Origin of Sex
Abstract
The origin of sexual reproduction represents a central problem in evolutionary biology. In this study, we develop a theoretical model that evaluates whether cellular fusion (syngamy) could have conferred an immediate selective advantage by reducing generation time. We employ a simplified framework in which a population of primitive, haploid cells—growing exponentially—is subjected to mitosis upon reaching a critical size. The introduction of a mutation that endows cells with the ability to fuse permits the formation of diploid cells that, after growing to an “adult” size, undergo two successive divisions. Our analysis quantifies the total reproductive cycle time for both strategies (haploid and diploid with fusion) and demonstrates that under specific conditions—namely, when the mitotic phase is relatively short compared to the growth phase—cellular fusion shortens the reproductive cycle, thus offering an advantage in terms of descendant production per unit time. Furthermore, we discuss model extensions to include a finite probability of encountering a receptor as well as variability in receptor cell size.
Keywords: Cellular fusion, generation time, origin of sex, theoretical model, cell cycle
1. Introduction
The origin of sexual reproduction—and, in particular, cellular fusion (syngamy)—has been the subject of extensive debate in evolutionary literature. Traditionally, long-term advantages such as genetic recombination, the purging of deleterious mutations, and the generation of genetic variability have been proposed. However, recent theoretical studies have suggested that immediate benefits, such as a reduction in generation time, could have contributed to the establishment of cellular fusion in primitive populations.
In this study, we develop a theoretical model comparing the reproductive cycle of “normal” haploid cells with that of a mutant lineage capable of fusion leading to diploid formation. The central hypothesis is that if cellular fusion reduces the total reproductive cycle time, the mutant strategy could achieve a higher effective population growth rate, thereby conferring an immediate selective advantage. We also explore how a fixed duration for the mitotic phase—independent of growth conditions—affects the relative advantage of fusion. Finally, we propose model improvements through simulations that incorporate a finite probability of encountering a receptor and the variability in receptor cell size.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Model Framework
We consider a population of primitive cells contained within a finite volume. The model assumptions are as follows:
- Cellular Characteristics:
- Cells are spherical, photosynthetic, and haploid.
- Each daughter cell is born with a normalized size of ½ and grows exponentially until reaching an “adult” size of 1, at which point mitosis is initiated.
- Growth and Mitosis:
- Growth is exponential, so the time required for a cell to grow from ½ to 1 is given by where is the growth rate.
- In the haploid cycle, the mitotic phase is assumed to have a fixed duration Tdiv (initial analyses considered this as 10% of ; here it is treated as an independent parameter).
- Consequently, the total time for the haploid cycle is
- Survival Probability:
Due to resource limitations, we assume a mortality rate of 5% per cycle, such that each cell completing its cycle produces, on average, 1.9 effective descendants.
2.2 Introduction of the Fusion Mutation
We assume that at some point a mutant cell arises that acquires the ability to fuse with a “receptor” cell. The assumptions for the fusion strategy are:
- The mutant cell is born with a size of ½ and, upon acquiring fusion capability, attempts to fuse with a receptor cell.
- In the initial analysis, the receptor is assumed to be a cell of fixed size (3/4), so that the fused cell attains a size of
- The fused cell, now diploid, must grow from to reach an “adult” size defined for diploid cells, which is 2. The growth time for the diploid cycle is therefore
- Once the diploid cell reaches size 2, it duplicates its genome and undergoes two consecutive divisions (each of duration Tdiv), so that the total time devoted to mitosis in the diploid cycle is
- The total time for the diploid cycle is then
- After division, 4 haploid cells are produced, of which only 2 carry the fusion gene; thus, the effective descendant production remains 1.9 (after applying the survival probability).
2.3 Analysis of Reproductive Advantage
The advantage of each strategy is assessed in terms of the effective growth rate, reffective, defined as
Accordingly, we have:
- For the haploid cycle:
- For the diploid (fusion) cycle:
The analysis focuses on determining for which values of Tdiv (or equivalently, the ratio ) the fusion strategy is advantageous—that is, when .
3. Results
3.1 Base Case: Fixed Mitosis Duration and No Variability in Fusion
For the haploid strategy, the growth time is:
For the diploid (fusion) strategy, the growth time is:
and the total cycle time is:
Comparing the two cycles, the fusion strategy yields a shorter total reproductive cycle if:
Rearranging, we obtain:
or equivalently:
Given that and , the relative condition can be expressed as:
Thus, if the fixed mitosis duration is less than approximately 32% of the growth time, the cellular fusion strategy shortens the reproductive cycle and thereby confers an advantage in terms of effective growth rate.

The upper graph illustrates the growth cycle of haploid cells, while the lower graph represents the modified cycle for diploid cells resulting from cellular fusion.
(A) Haploid Cycle: The growth phase (G) begins at size 0.5 and follows an exponential increase until the cell reaches size 1. At this threshold, the cell enters the S-M phase, during which DNA replication and mitosis occur, leading to the formation of two new daughter cells of size 0.5. The process then repeats.
(B) Diploid Cycle with Fusion: Initially, a fusion event occurs, where a haploid cell (size 0.5) merges with another haploid cell of variable size (approximated as 0.75 in the model), forming a diploid cell with a combined size of 1.25. This fused diploid cell undergoes a growth phase (G) similar to the haploid cell but must reach a larger threshold size (size 2) before division. Once this size is reached, the cell undergoes the first mitotic division (S-M1), producing two diploid cells of size 1. These cells then proceed to a second mitotic event (M2), generating haploid offspring (size 0.5), thus restoring the original ploidy level.
These graphs visually highlight the key differences between the haploid and diploid growth cycles. The diploid cycle introduces additional steps and an extended growth phase, but it may confer advantages in terms of genetic exchange and resilience, influencing the evolutionary trajectory of early cellular life.
3.2 Influence of Mitosis Duration
The analysis clearly indicates that the advantage derived from fusion is critically dependent on the parameter . When is small relative to the growth time, the diploid cycle (with two mitotic phases) is shorter than the haploid cycle, despite the additional division. Conversely, if is too long, the advantage is lost or even reversed, making the fusion strategy disadvantageous in terms of descendant production per unit time.

4. Discussion
Our theoretical model suggests that cellular fusion may have provided an immediate reproductive efficiency advantage by reducing generation time. Under conditions where the fixed mitotic phase is relatively short compared to the growth phase, fusion—even though it entails two consecutive mitoses—results in a shorter total reproductive cycle compared to conventional haploid cells. This finding is quantified by the condition:
Nonetheless, we recognize that our initial analysis is based on simplified assumptions. In more realistic biological scenarios:
- Fusion Is Neither Immediate nor Certain:
Rather than assuming that the mutant cell fuses automatically, a finite probability, pfusion (less than 1), could be assigned to the event of encountering and fusing with a receptor cell. This introduces a “search cost” or delay that may reduce the net advantage. - Variability in Receptor Cell Size:
In our initial model, the receptor cell was assumed to have a fixed size (3/4). However, in a real environment the receptor cell could exhibit variability in size, with values ranging from ½ to values close to 1 (depending on the cell cycle state). This variability can be incorporated by drawing the receptor size from a statistical distribution (e.g., a bounded uniform or normal distribution). Consequently, the initial size of the fused cell, defined as
would vary, influencing the growth time required to reach the adult size. - Agent-Based Simulation Implementation:
To more realistically evaluate the impact of a finite fusion probability and receptor cell size variability, we propose developing in silico simulations. In these simulations, each cell would be modeled as an agent with attributes (size, cell cycle state, fusion capability, etc.) and the probability would govern successful encounters with receptor cells. The receptor cell’s size would be assigned randomly from a defined distribution. Such simulations would allow exploration of the conditions under which cellular fusion confers an advantage, depending on environmental factors and population dynamics.
Collectively, these extensions offer a plausible explanation for how an immediate reproductive efficiency advantage—through generation time reduction—could have facilitated the establishment of cellular fusion in early evolutionary stages. This process may have represented a preliminary step toward the evolution of sexual reproduction as it is known today, complementing other long-term benefits such as recombination and enhanced DNA repair.
5. Conclusions
We have presented a theoretical model comparing the reproductive cycle of haploid cells with that of a mutant lineage capable of fusion leading to diploid formation. Our results demonstrate that, provided the fixed mitosis duration is less than approximately 32% of the growth time, cellular fusion shortens the reproductive cycle and increases the effective growth rate. This finding suggests that cellular fusion may have conferred an immediate reproductive efficiency advantage—a plausible mechanism contributing to the origin of sex. Furthermore, we propose extending the model via simulations that incorporate a finite probability of fusion and variability in receptor cell size to more realistically capture the evolutionary scenarios that initiated the transition toward sexual reproduction.
Mancebo Quintana, J. M., Mancebo Quintana, S., A Short-Term Advantage for Syngamy in the Origin of Eukaryotic Sex: Effects of Cell Fusion on Cell Cycle Duration and Other Effects Related to the Duration of the Cell Cycle—Relationship between Cell Growth Curve and the Optimal Size of the Species, and Circadian Cell Cycle in Photosynthetic Unicellular Organisms, International Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 2012, 746825, 25 pages, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/746825

















Y aquí ambas gráficas superpuestas, para evidenciar que no hay correspondencia entre ambos conjuntos de datos. La explicación -a la mala calidad de los datos PCR- puede ser que solo muestre un límite diario al número de pruebas que se pueden hacer, alrededor de las 500 diarias.












Otra característica de estos modelos SIR es que la suma de todos los compartimentos siempre es la población total. Esto es importante a la hora de comparar estos modelos con los datos, pues estamos acostumbrados a ver en los medios las gráficas con los nuevos casos (como las que yo he mostrado hasta ahora) y los casos acumulados, que en realidad son gráficas de contagiados, en las que no se van descontando los recuperados ni los fallecidos. Esto significa, además de una importante diferencia en las representaciones gráficas, que cualquier variación en el comportamiento de un tipo de estado (S, I, R…) afecta a los demás.

Aquí tenemos los resultados, con un cambio gradual de R0 centrado en el 18 de marzo, arriba los nuevos contagios y abajo los nuevos fallecidos. Hemos conseguido un ajuste mucho mejor entre el modelo y los datos, pero, por un lado, no conseguimos reproducir la zona de llaneo en la fase de decrecimiento y, por otro, hemos tenido que desplazar cuatro días la fecha de fallecimientos, pues el modelo se adelanta.







¡Un modelo que se ajusta -razonablemente bien- a los datos!






Si optamos por usar una media móvil a 7 días de los datos (arriba casos, abajo fallecidos), vemos que ambos conjuntos de datos muestran una fuerte asimetría, con una pendiente más baja en la zona de bajada. La curva logística, simétrica, no puede reproducir esta asimetría.



























Resulta que este compuesto es muy tóxico y se administra asociado a otra molécula (un quelante) que ayuda a eliminarlo del cuerpo rápidamente por los riñones. Pero si tienes problemas renales serios no podrás eliminarlo… y puedes enfermar. La fibrosis sistémica nefrogénica fue descubierta en 2006 y, ¡oh, casualidad!, todos los pacientes del estudio habían recibido una dosis de gadolinio muy recientemente. Uno de los 15 casos estudiados falleció. Por este motivo, ahora los encargados de realizar la prueba consultan al paciente por su función renal.










